France

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several peaks over 10,000 ft. within French territory; the highest elevation therein, the Vignemale, in the centre of the range, reaches 10,820 ft. On the north their most noteworthy offshoots are, in the centre, the plateau of Lannemezan from which rivers radiate fanwise to join the Adour and Garonne; and in the east the Corbire. On the south-eastern frontier the French Alps, which include Mont Blanc (15,800 ft.), and, more to the south, other summits over 11,000 ft. in height, cover Savoy and most of Dauphin and Provence, that is to say, nearly the whole of France to the south and east of the Rhne. North of that river the parallel chains of the Jura form an arc of a circle with its convexity towards the north-west. In the southern and most elevated portion of the range there are several summits exceeding 5500 ft. Separated from the Jura by the defile of Belfort (Troue de Belfort) the Vosges extend northward parallel to the course of the Rhine. Their culminating points in French territory, the Ballon dAlsace and the Hdhneck in the southern portion of the chain, reach 4100 ft. and 4480 ft. The Vosges are buttressed on the west by the Faucilles, which curve southwards to meet the plateau of Langres, and by the plateaus of Haute- 20 E 4 F 6 G

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C.8~o, MEDITERRANEAN SEA

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Marne, united to the Ardennes on the north-eastern frontier by the wooded highlands of Argonne.

Seaboard.The shore of the Mediterranean encircling the Gulf of the Lion (Golfe du Lion) from Cape Cerbera to Martigues is lowlying and unbroken, and characterized chiefly by lagoons separated from the sea by sand-dunes. The coast, constantly encroaching on the sea by reason of the alluvium washed down by the rivers of the Pyrenees and Cvennes, is without important harbours saving that of Cette, itself continually invaded by the sand. East of Martigues the coast is rocky and of greater altitude~and is broken by pro jectirig capes (Couronne, Croisette, Sici, the peninsula of Giens and Cape Antibes), and by deep gulfs forming secure roadsteads such as those of Marseilles, which has the chief port in France, Toulon, with its great naval harbour, and Hyres, to which may be added the Gulf of St Tropez.

Along the Atlantic coast from the mouth of the Adour to the estuary of the Gironde there stretches a monotonous line of sanddunes bordered by lagoons on the land side, but towards the sea harbourless and unbroken save for the Bay of Arcachon. To the north as far as the rocky point of St Gildas, sheltering the mouth of~he Loire, the shore, often occupied by salt marshes (marshes of Poitou and Brittany), is low-lying and hollowed by deep bays sheltered by large islands, those of Olron and Re lying opposite the ports of Rochefort and La Rochelle, while Noirmoutier closes the Bay of Bourgneuf.

Beyond the Loire estuary, on the north shore of which is the port of St Nazaire, the peninsula of Brittany projects into the ocean and here begins the most rugged, wild and broken portion of the French seaboard; the chief of innumerable indentations are, on the south the Gulf of Morbihan, which opens into a bay protected to the west by ,the narrow peninsula of Quiberon, the Bay of Lorient with the po~t of Lorient, and the Bay of Concarneau; on the west the dangerous Bay of Audierne and the Bay of Douarnenez separated from the spacious roadstead of Brest, with its important naval port, by the peninsula of Crozon, and forming with it a great indentation sheiterdhy Cape St Mathieu on the north and by Cape Raz on the south; On the north, opening into the English Channel, the Morlaix roads, the Bay of St Brieuc, the estuary of the Rance, with the port of St Malo and the Bay of St Michel. Numerous small archipelagoes and islands, of which the chief are Belle Tie, Groix and Ushant, fringe the Breton coast.- North of the Bay of St Michel the peninsula of Cotentin, terminating in the promontories of Hague and Barfleur, juts north into the English Channel and closes the bay of the Seine on the -west. Cherbourg, its chid harbour, lies on the northern shore between the two promontories. The great port of Le Havre stands at the mouth of the Seine estuary, which opens into the bay of,the Seine on the east. North of that point a line of high cliffs, in which occur the ports of Fcamp and Dieppe, stretches nearly to the sandy estuary of the Somme. North of that river the coast is low-lying and bordered by sand-lunes, to which succeed on the Strait of Dover the cliffs in the neighborhood of the port of Boulogne and the marshes and sand-dunes of Flanders, with the ports of Calais and Dunkirk, the latter the principal French port on the NOrth Sea.

To the maritime ports mentIoned above must be added the river pcsrts of Bayonne (on the Adour), Bordeaux (on the Garonne), Nantes (on the Loire), Rouen (on the Seine). On the whole, however, France is inadequately provided with natural harbours; her long tract of coast washed by the Atlantic and the Bay of Biscay has sqarcely three or four good seaports, and those on the southern shore of the Channel form a striking contrast to the spacious maritime inlets on theEnglish side.

Rivers.The greater part of the surface of France is divided between four principal and several secondary basins.

The basin of the Rhne, with an area (in France) of about 35,000 sq. rn, covers eastern France from the Mediterranean to the Vosges, from the Cvennes and the Plateau de Langres to the crests of the Jura and the Alps. Alone among French rivers, the Rhne, itself Alpine in character in its upper course, is partly fed by Alpine rivers (the Arve, the Isre and the Durance) which have their floodsin spring at the melting of the snow, and are maintained by glacierwater in summer. The Rhne, the source of which is in Mont St Gothard, in Switzerland, enters France by the narrow defile of LEcluse, and has a somewhat meandering course, first flowing south, then north-west, and then west as far as Lyons, whence it runs straight south till it reaches the Mediterranean, into which it discharges itself by two principal branches, which form the delta or island of the Camargue. The Am, the, Sane (which rises in the Faucilles and in the lower part of its course skirting the regions of Bresse and Dombes, receives the Doubs and joins the Rhone at Lyons), the Ardche and the Gard are the affluents on the right; on the left it is joined by the Arve, the Isre, the Drme and the Durance. The small independent river, the Var, drains that portion of the Alps which fringes the Mediterranean.

The basin of the Garonne occupies south-western France with the exception of the tracts covered by the secondary basins of the Adour, the Aude, the Hrault, the Orb and other smaller rivers, and the lowlying plain of the Landes, which is watered by numerous coast rivers, notably by the Leyre. Its area is nearly 33,000 sq. m., and extends from the Pyrenees to the uplands of Saintonge, Prigord and Limousin. The Garonne rises in the valley of Aran (Spanish Pyrenees), enters France near Bagnres-de-Luchon, has first a north-west course, then bends to the north-east, and soon resumes its first direction. Joining the Atlantic between Royan and the Pointe de Grave, opposite the tower of Cordouan. In the lower part of its course, from the Bec-dAnibez, where it receives the Dordogne, it becomes considerably wider, and takes the name of Gironde. The principal affluents are the AriCge, the Tarn with the Aveyron and the Agout, the Lot and the Dordogne, which descends from Mont Dore-lesBains, and joins the Garonne at Bec-dAmbez, to form the Gironde. All these affluents are on the right, and with the exception of the Arige, which descends from the eastern Pyrcnees, rise in the mountaitis of Auvergne and the southern Cvennes, their sources often lying close to those of the rivers of the Loire and Rhone basins. The Neste, a Py1-enean torrent, and the Save, the Gers and the Baise, ~sig -i the plateau of Lannemezan, are the principal left-hand tributaries of the Garonne. North of the basin of,the Garonne an area of over 3800 sq. m. is watered by the secondary system of the Charente, which descends from ChCronnac (Haute-Vienne), traverses Angoulme and falls into the Atlantic near Rochefort. Farther to the north a number of small rivers, the chief of which is the Svre Niortaise, drain the coast region to the south of the plateau of Gtine.

The basin of the Loire, with an area of about 47,000 sq. m., includes a great part of central and western France or nearly a quarter of the whole country. The Loire rises in Mont Gerbier de Jonc, in the range of the Vivarais mountains, flows due north to Nevers, then turns to the north-west as far as Orleans, in the neighborhood of which it separates the marshy region of the Sologne (~.v.) on the south from the wheat-growing region of Beauce and the Gtinais on the north. Below Orleans it takes its course towards the south-west, and lastly from Saumtir runs west, till it reaches the Atlantic between Paimbceuf and St Nazaire. On the right the Loire receives the waters of the Furens, the Arroux, the Nivre, the Maine (formed by the Mayenne and the Sarthe with its affluent the Loir), and the Erdre, which joins the Loire at Nantes; on the left, the Allier (which receives the Dore and the Sioule), the Loiret, the Cher, the Indre, the Vienne with its affluent the Creuse, the Thouet, and the Svre-Nantaise. The peninsula of Brittany and the coasts of Normandy on both sides of the Seine estuary are watered b numerous independent streams., Amongst these the Vilaine, whic passes Rennes and Redon, waters, with its tributaries, an area of 4200 sq. m. The Orne, which rises in the hills of Normandy and falls into the Channel below Caen, is of considerably less importance.

The basin of the Seine, though its area of a little over 30,000 sq. m. is smaller than that of any of the other main systems, comprises the finest network of navigable rivers in the country. It is by far the most important basin of northern France, those of the Somme and Scheldt in the north-west together covering less than 5000 sq. in., those of the Meuse and the Rhine in the north-east less than 7000 sq. m. The Seine descends from the Langres plateau, flows northwest down to Mry, turns to the west, resumes its north-westerly direction at Montereau, passes through Paris and Rouen and discharges itself into the Channel between Le Havre and Honfleur. Its affluents are, on the right, the Aube; the Marne, which joins the Seine at Charenton near Paris; the Oise, which has its source in Belgium and is enlarged by the Aisne; and the Epte; on the left the Yonne, the Loing, the Essonne, the Eure and the RUle.

Lakes.France has very few lakes. The Lake of Geneva, which forms 32 m. of the frontier, belongs to Switzerland. The most important French lake is that of Grand-Lieu, between Nantes and Pairnbceuf (Loire-Infrieure), which presents a surface of 17,300 acres. There may also be mentioned the lakes of Bourget and Annecy (both in Savoy), St Point (Jura), Paladru (Isre) and Nantua (Am). The marshy districts of Sologne, Brenne, Landes and Dombes still contain large undrained tracts. The coasts present a number of maritime inlets, forming inland bays, which communicate with the sea by channels of greater or less width. Some of these are on the south-west coast, in the Landes, as Carcans, Lacanau, Biscarosse, Cazau, Sanguinet; but more are to be found in the south and south-east, in Languedoc and Provence, as Leucate, Sigean, Thau, Vaccars, Berre, &c. Their want of depth prevents them from serving as roadsteads for shipping, and they are useful chiefly for fishing or for the manufacture of bay-salt.

Climate.The north and north-west of France bear a great resemblance, both in temperature and produce, to the south of England, rain occurring frequently, and the country being consequently suited for pasture. in the interior the rains are less frequent, but when they occur are far mpre heavy, so that there is much less difference in the annual rainfall there as compared with the rest of the country than in the number of rainy days. The annual rainfall for the whole of France averages about 32 in. The precipitation is greatest on the Atlantic seaboard and in the elevated regions of the interior. It attains over 60 in. in the basin of the Adour (7f in. at the western extremity of the Pyrenees), and nearly as much in the Vosges, Morvan, Cvennes and parts of the central plateau. The zone of level country extending from Reims and Troyes to Angers and Poitiers, with the exception of the Loire valley and the Brie, receives less than 24 in. of rain annually (Paris about 23 in.), as also does the Mediterranean coast west of Marseilles. The prevailing winds, mild and humid, are west winds from the Atlantic; continental climatic influence makes itself felt in the east wind, which is frequent in winter and in the east of France, while the mistral, a violent wind from the north-west, is characteristic of the Mediterranean region. The local climates of France may be grouped under the following seven designations: (I) Sequan climate, characterizing the Seine basin and northern France, with a mean temperature of 500 F., the winters being cold, the summers mild; (2) Breton climate, with a mean temperature of 51-8 F., the winters being mild, the summers temperate, it is characterized by, west and south-west winds and frequent fine rains; (3) Girondin climate (characterizing Bordeaux, Agen, Pau, &c.), having a mean of 53.6 F., with mild winters and hot summers, the prevailing wind is from the north-west, the average rainfall about 28 in.; (4) Auvergne climate, comprising the Cvennes, central plateau, Clermont, Lirnoges anti Rodez, mean temperature 51.8 F., with cold winters and hot summers; (5) Vosges climate (comprehending Epinal, Mzires and Nancy), having a mean of 48.2 F., with long and severe winters and hot and rainy summers; (6) Rhne climate (experienced by Lyons, Chalon, Macon, Grenoble) mean temperature 5I~8 F., with cold and wet winters and hot summers, the prevailing winds are north and south; (7) Mediterranean climate, ruling at Valence, NImes, Nice and Marseilles, mean temperature, 57.5 F., with mild winters and hot and almost rainless summers.

Flora and Fauna.The flora of southern France and the Mediterranean is distinct from that of the rest of the country, which does not differ in vegetation from western Europe generally. Evergreens predominate in the south, where grow subtropical plants such as the myrtle, arbutus, laurel, holm-oak, olive and fig; varieties of the same kind are also found on the Atlantic coast (as far north as the Cotentin), where the humidity and mildness of the climate favor their growth. The orange, date-palm and eucalyptus have been acclimatized on the coast of Provence and the Riviera. Other trees of southern France are the cork-oak and the Aleppo and maritime pines. In north and central Franee the chief trees are the oak, the beech, rare south of the Loire, and the hornbeam; less important varieties are the birch, poplar, ash, elm and walnut. The chestnut covers considerable areas in Prigord, Limousin and Beam; resinotis trees (firs, pines, larches, &c.) form fine forests in the Vosges and The indigenous fauna include the bear, now very rare but still found in the Alps and Pyrenees, the wolf, harbouring chiefly in the Cvennes and Vosges, but in continually decreasing areas; the fox, marten, badger, weasel, otter, the beaver in the extreme south of the Rhne valley, and in the Alps the marmot; the red deer and roe deer are preserved in many of the forests, and the wild boar is found in several districts; the chamois and wild goat survive in the Pyrenees and Alps. Flares, rabbits and squirrels are common. Among birds of prey may be mentioned the eagle and various species of hawk, and among game-birds the partridge and pheasant. The reptiles include the ringed-snake, slow-worm, viper and liz~rd. (R. Ta.)

Geology.Many years ago it was pointed out by Elie de Beaumont and Dufrnoy that the Jurassic rocks of France form upon the map an incomplete figure of 8. Within the northern circle of the 8 lie the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of the Paris basin, dipping inwards; within the southern circle lie the ancient rocks of the Central Plateau, from which the later beds dip outwards. Outside the northern circle lie on the west the folded Palaeozoic rocks of Brittany. and on the north the Palaeozoic massif of the Ardennes. Outside the southern circle lie on the west the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of the basin of the Garonne, with the Pyrenees beyond, and on the east the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of the valley of the Rhne, with the Alps beyond.

In the geological history of France there have been two great periods of folding since Archean times. The first of these occurred towards the close of the Palaeozoic era, when a great mountain system was raised in the north running approximately from E. toW., and another chain arose in the south, running from S.W. to N.E. Of the former the remnants are now seen in Brittany and the Ardennes; of the latter the Cvennes and the Montagne Noire are the last traces visible on the surface. The second great folding took place in Tertiary times, and to it was due the final elevation of the J ura and the Western Alps and of the Pyrenees. No great mountain chain was ever raised by a single effort, and folding went on to some extent in other periods besides those mentioned. There were, moreover, other and broader oscillations which raised or lowered extensive areas withbut much crumpling of the strata, and to these are due some of the most important breaks in the geological series.

The oldest rocks, the gneisses and schists of the Archean period, form nearly the whole of the Central Plateau, and are also exposed in the axes of the folds in Brittany. The Central Plateau has probably been a land mass ever since this period, but the rest of the country was flooded by the Palaeozoic sea. The earlier deposits of that sea now rise to the surface in Brittany, the Ardennes, the Montagne Noire and the Cvennes, and in all these regions they arc intensely folded. Towards the close of the Palaeozoic era France had become a part of a great continent; in the north the Coal Measures of the Boulonnais and the Nord were laid down in direct connection with those of Belgium and England, while in the Central Plateau the Coal Measures were deposited in isolated and scattered basins. The Permian and Triassic deposits were also, for the most part, of continental origin; but with the formation of the Rhaetic beds the sea again began to spread, and throughout the greater part of the J ueassic period it covered nearly the whole of the country except the Central Plateau, Brittany and the Ardennes. Towards the end of the period, however, during the deposition of the Portlandian beds, the sea again retreated, and in the early part of the Cretaceous period was limited (in France) to the catchment basins of the Sane and Rhnein the Paris basin the contemporaneous deposits were chiefly estuarine and were confined to the northern and eastern rim. Beginning with the Aptian and Albian the sea again gradually spread over the country and attained its maximum in the early part of the Senonian epoch, when once more the ancient massifs of the Central Plateau, Brittany and the Ardennes, alone rose above the waves. There was still, however, a well-marked difference between the deoosits of the northern and the southern narts of Franre. the former consisting of chalk, as in England, and the latter of sandstones and limestones with Hippurites. During the later part of the Cretaceous period the sea gradually retreated and left the whole country dry.

During the Tertiary period arms of the sea spread into France in the Paris basin from the north, in the basins of the Loire and the Garonne from the west, and in the Rhne area from the south. The changes, however, were too numerous and complex to be dealt with here.

In France, as in Great Britain, volcanic eruptions occurred during several of the Palaeozoic periods, but during the Mesozoic era the // /

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L_J Quaternary ~ rrias,sic Siluro-Can,brian ~ Tertiary Perm,an A,cha.u.. M.t~~mo,pio Cretacou, Carbonhferous 1~I~] Plutonic Rocl~,

Jurassic Oeuonian Volcanic Rock, country was free from outbursts, except in the regions of the Alps and Pyrenees. In Tertiary times the Central Plateau was the theatre of great volcanic activity from the Miocene ,to the Pleistocene periods, and many of the volcanoes remain as nearly perfect cones to the present day. The rocks are mainly basalts and andesites, together with trachytes and phonolites, and some of the basaltic flows are of enormous extent.

On the geology of France see the classic Explication de la carte goloique de La France (Paris, vol. i. 1841, vol. ii.. 1848), by Dufrnoy and Elie de Beaumont; a more modern account, with full references, is given by A. de Lapparent, Trait de gologie (Paris, 1906).

(J. A. H.)

Population.

The French nation is formed of many different elements. Eberian influence in the south-west, Ligurian on the shores of the Mediterranean, Germanic immigrations from east of the Rhine and Scandinavian immigrations in the north-west have tended to produce ethnographical diversities which ease of intercommunication and other modern conditions have failed to obliterate. The so-called Celtic type, exemplified by individuals of rather less than average height, brown-haired and brachycephalic, is the fundamental element in the nation and peoples the region between the Seine and the Garonne; in southern France a different type, dolichocephalic, short and with black hair and eyes, predominates. The tall, fair and blue-eyed individuals who are found to the north-east of the Seine and in Normandy appear to be nearer in race to the Scandinavian and Germanic invaders; a tall and darker type with long faces and aquiline noses occurs in some parts of Franche-Co1nt and Champagne, the Vosges and the Perche. From the Celts has been derived the gay, brilliant and adventurous temperament easily moved to extremes of er,thiisi~cm snd t-lenrpgcg-,n whwh combined with logical and organizing faculties of a high order, the heritage from the Latin domination, and with the industry, frugality and love of the soil natural in an agricultural people go to make up the national character. The Bretons, who most nearly represent the Celts, and the Basques, who inhabit parts of the western versant of the Pyrenees, have preserved their distinctive languages and customs, and are ethnically the most interesting sections of the nation; the Flemings of French Flanders where Flemish is still spoken are also racially distinct. The immigration of Belgians into the northern departments and of Italians into those of the south-east exercise a constant modifying influence on the local populations.

During the I9th century the population of France increased to a less extent than that of any other The follc country (except Ireland) for which definite data exist, departmen and 1906:

and during the last twenty years of that period it ________

was little more than stationary. The following table exhibits the rate of increase as indicated by the Del censuses from 1876 to 1906. Population. ______

1876. ... 36,905,788 Am ~88i. ... 37,672,048 Aisne 1886. .. .38,218,903 Allier 1891. .. 38,342,948 Alpes-Ma 1896. ... 38,517,975 Ardche I901. .. - 38,961,945 Ardennes 1906. ... 39,252,245 Arige Thus the rate of increase during the decade 1891 Aube 1901 was .16%, whereas during the same period the Aude -

Aveyron population of England increased 1 ~o8%. The birth- Basses-Al rate markedly decreased during the 19th century; Basses-Py despite an increase of population between 1801 and Belfort, 1

1901 amounting to 40%, the number of births in Bouches-.

Calvados the former was 904,000, as against 857,000 in the Cantal latter year, the diminution being acconipanied by Charente a decrease in the annual number of deaths. In Charentethe following table the decrease in births and deaths Cher -

Corrze for the decennial periods during the thirty years Corse (Cc ending 1900 are compared. Cte-dOt Births Cfites-du Creuse i87i188o. -.. 935,000 or 254 per 1000 Deux-Sv 1881-1890. -. - 909,000 23~9 Dordogne I8911900 -.. - 853,000 ,, 222 Doubs Deaths. Drflme 1871-1880. - - 87o,~oo or 23.7 per 1000 Eure 1881-1890. - - - 841,700 ,, 22I ,, Eure-et-L

1891-1900 - -. - 829,000 ,, 21.5 Finistre Gard About two-thirds of the French departments, corn- Gers prising a large proportion of those situated in Gironde mountainous districts and in the basin of the Garonne, Haute-Ga where the birth-rate is especially feeble, show a Haute-Lo Haute-Mi decrease in population. Those which show an in- Hautes-A crease usually possess large centres of industry and are Haute-Sa already thickly populated, e.g. Seine and Pas-de-Calais. Haute-Sa In most departments the principal cause of decrease Hautes-P~

Haute-Vui of population is the attraction of great centres. The Hrault average density of population in France is about 190 Ille-et-Vil to the square mile, the tendency being for the large Indre towns to increase at the expense of the small towns Indre-et-I as well as the rural communities. In 1901 ~7% of the Isre J ura population lived in centres containing more than 2000 Landes inhabitants, whereas in 1861 the proportion was 28%. Loir-et-CI Besides the industrial districts the most thickly Loire -

Loire-Infi populated regions include the coast of the depart- Loiret ment of Seine-Infrieure and Brittany, the wine-grow- Lot -

ing region of the Bordelais and the Riviera.1 Lot-et-Ga In 1907 deaths were superior in number to births by Lozre nearly 20,000. Maine-et populated and the three most sparsely populated depart- Marne ments in France: Mayenne Meurthe Inhabitants to the Square Mile. Meuse Seine - - 20,803 I Basses-Alpes -. 42 Morbihar Nord - - 850 Hautes-Alpes. N~~vre Rhne - - - 778 I Lozre. ... 64 Nord In the quinquennial period 1901-1905, out of the total number of births the number of illegitimate births to every Iooo inhabitants was 2~0, as compared with 2I in the four preceding periods of like duration.

In 1906 the number of foreigners in France was 1,009,415

as compared with 1,027,491 in 1896 and 1,115,214 in 1886.

The departments with the largest population of foreigners were Nord (191,678), in which there is a large proportion of Belgians; Bouches-du-Rhne (123,497), Alpes-Maritimes (93,554), Var (~7,4~5), Italians being numerous in these three departments; Seine (153,647), Meurthe-et-Moselle(44, 595), Pasde-Calais (21,436) and Ardennes (21,401).

wing table gives the area in square miles of each of the eighty-seven :s with its population according to the census returns of 1886, 1896

Area Population.

artments. ~ m q. i886.1896.1906.

- - 2,249 364,408 351,569 345,856

-. - - 2,867 555,925 541,613 534,495

- - - 2,849 424,582 424,378 417,961

ntimes - - 1,442 238,057 265,I55 334,007

- - - 2,145 375,472 363,501 347,140

-. - 2,028 332,759 318,865 317,505

- 1,893 237,619 219,641 205,684

- 2,326 257,374 251,435 243,670

-. - - 2,448 332,080 310,513 308,327

- 3,386 415,826 389,464 377,299

)es.. 2,698 129,494 ff8,142 113,126

rnes. - 2,977 432,999 423,572 426,817

erritoire de - 235 79,758 88,047 95,421

u-Rhne - - 2,026 604,857 673,820 765,918

- 2,197 437,267 417,176 403,431

2,231 241,742 234,382 228,690

-.. - 2,305 366,408 356,236 351,733

Infrieure - 2,791 462,803 453,455 453,793

-. 2,819 355,349 347,725 343,484

- -. - 2,273 326,494 322,393 317,430

rsica) - - 3,367 278,501 290,168 29I,I60

-. .. 3,392 381,574 368,168 357,959

~ord. - 2,786 628,256 616,074 611,506

-.. - 2,164 284,942 279,366 274,094

res.. - 2,337 353,766 346,694 339,466

- 3,561 492,205 464,822 447,052

- 2,030 310,963 302,046 298,438

-~.. 2,533 314,615 303,491 297,270

2,330 358,829 340,652 330,140

Dir -. - 2,293 283,719 280,469 273,823

-.. 2,713 707,820 739,648 795,103

-. .. 2,270 417,099 416,036 421,166

2,428 274,391 250,472 231,088

- -.. 4,140 775,845 809,902 823,925

ronne - - 2,458 481,169 459,377 442,065

re.. - 1,931 320,063 316,699 314,770

roe.. - 2,415 247,781 232,057 221,724

pes -. - 2,178 122,924 113,229 107,498

~ne -. - 2,075, 290,954 272,891 263,890

oie - - - 1,775 275,018 265872 260,617

rnes. - 1,750 234,825 218,973 209,397

one -. - 2,144 363,182 375,724 385,732

- - - 2,403 439,044 469,684 482,799

Line -. - 2,699 621,384 622,039 611,805

- -.. 2,666 296,147 289,206 290,216

oire.. - 2,377 340,921 337,064 337,916

-.. 3,179 581,680 568,933 562,315

- 1,951 281,292 266,143 257,725

- - 3,615 302,266 292,884 293,397

er.. - 2,479 279,214 278,153 276,019

-.. 1,853 603,384 625,336 643,943

rieure.. 2,694 643,884 646,172 666,748

-. .. 2,629 374,875 371,019 364,999

-. .. 2,017 271,514 240,403 216,611

ronne. - 2,079 307,437 286,377 274,610

-. .. 1,999 141,264 132,151 128,016

Loire.. 2,706 527,680 514,870 513,490

-. - 2,475 520,865 500,052 487,443

-.. 3,167 429,494 439,577 434,157

-.. 2,012 340,063 321,187 305,457

t-Moselle. - 2,038 431,693 466,417 517,508

409 291,971 290,384 280,220

2,738 535,256 552,028 573,152

- 2,659 347,645 333,899 313,972

-.. - 2,229 1,670,184 1,811,868 1,895,861

Population.

Departments. Area, __________ __________

sq. m. 1886., 1896.

Oise 2,272 403,146 404,511

Orne 2,372 367,248 339,162

Pas-de-Calais.. 2,606 853,526 906,249

Puy-de-Dme - -. 3,094 570,964 555,078

Pyrnes-Orientales 1,599 211,187 208,387

Rhne - - - 1,104 772,912 839,329

Sane-et-Loire. - 3,330 625,885 621,237

Sarthe.. -. 2,410 436,111 425,077

Savoie. - - 2,389 267,428 259,790

Seine 185 2,961,089 3,340,514

Seine-Infrieure 2,448 833,386 837,824

Seine-et-Marne - 2,289 355,136 359,044

Seine-et-Oise - - 2,184 618,089 669,098

Somme. - -. 2,423 548,982 543,279

Tarn 2,231 358,757 339,827

Tarn-et-Garonne - 1,440 214,046 200,390

Var 2,325 283,689 309,191

Vaucluse. .. 1,381 241,787 236,313

Vende. .. 2,708 434,808 441,735

Vienne.. .,. 2,719 342,785 338,114

Vosges.. -. 2,279 413,707 421,412

Yonne -.. 2,880 355,364 332,656

Total - - 207,076 38,218,903 38,517,975 3

The French census uses the commune as the basis of its returns, and employs the following classifications in respect to communal population: (I) Total communal population. (2) Population compt~e a part, which includes soldiers and sailors, inmates of prisons, asylums, schools, members of religious communities, and workmen temporarily engaged in public works. (3) Total municipal population, i.e. communal population minus the population compie a part. (4) Population municipale agglomre au chef-lieu de la commune, which embraces the urban population as opposed to the rural population. The following tables, showing the growth of the largest towns in France, are drawn up on the basis of the fourth classification, which is used throughout this work in the articles on French towns, except where otherwise stated.

In 1906 there were in France twelve towns with a population of over 100,000 inhabitants. Their growth or decrease from 1886 to 1906 is shown in the following table:

1886.1896.1906.

Paris - - 2,294,108 2,481,223 2,711,931

Lyons. - - 344,124 398,867 430,186

Marseilles - - 249,938 332,515 421,116

Bordeaux - 225,281 239,806 237,707

Lille.. 143,135 160,723 196,624

St Etienne - 103,229 120,300 130,940

Le Havre. - 109,199 117,009 129,403

Toulouse - 123,040 124,187 125,856

Roubaix - - 89,781 113,899 119,955

Nantes - - - 110,638 107,137 118,244

Rouen - - - 100,043 106,825 111,402

Reims - - 91,130 99,001 102,800

In the same years the following eighteen towns, now numbering from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, each had:

1886.1896.1906.

Nice - - - 61,464 69,140 99,556

Nancy - - - 69,463 83,668 98,302

Toulon - - - 53,941 70,843 87,997

Amiens - - 68,177 74,808 78,407

Limoges - - 56,699 64,718 75,906

Angers. - 65,152 69,484 73,585

Brest - - - 59,352 64,144 71,163

Nimes - - - 62,198 66,905 70,708

Montpellier 45,930 62,717 65,983

Dijon. - 50,684 58,355 65,516

Tourcoing - 41,183 55,705 62,694

Rennes - - - 52,614 57,249 62,024

Tours - - - 51,467 56,706 61,507

Calais - - - 52,839 50,818 59,623

Grenoble - - 43,260 50,084 58,641

Orleans 51,208 56,915 57,544

Le Mans - 46,991 49,665 54,907

Troyes - 44,864 50,676 51,228

Of the population in 1901, 18,916,889 were males and 19,533,899 females, an excess of females over males of I 6 617,010, i~e. 1.6% or about 508 females to every 492

________ males. In 1881 the proportion was 501 females to every 10 0 499 males, since when the disparity has been slightly 4 ~ more marked at every census. Below is a list of the 315,993 departments in which the number of women to every 012 460

535 419 thousand men was (I) greatest and (2) least.

213 171 (1) (2)

858 907 Creuse - -. - 1131 Belfort 886

613 377 Ctes-du-Nord - - 1117 Basses-Alpes -. - 893

421 470 Seine 1103 Var 894

253 297 Calvados.. -. ff00 Meuse 905

,848,618 Cantal 1098 Hautes-Alpes - - - 908

863 879 Seine-Infrieure.. 1084 Meurthe-et-Moselle - 918

361,939 Basses-PyrCnes.. 1080 Haute-Savoie. - - 947

749,753 Departments from which the adult males emigrate 532,567 regularly either to sea or to seek employment in towns 330,533 tend to fall under the first head, those in which large 188,553 bodies of troops are stationed under the second.

324,638 The annual number of emigrants from France is small.

239,178 The Basques of Basses-PyrnCes go in considerable 442,777 numbers to the Argentine Republic, the inhabitants of 333,621 Basses Alpes to Mexico and the United States, and 429,812 there are important French colonies in Algeria and 315,199 Tunisia.

The following table shows the distribution of the active ~,252,245 population of France according to their occupations in 1901.

Occupation. Males. Females. Total.

Forestry and agriculture 5,517,617 2,658,952 8,176,569

Manufacturing industries 3,695,213 2,124,642 5,819,855

Trade 1,132,621 689,999 1,822,620

Domestic service - - - 223,861 791,176 1,015,037

Transport 617,849 212,794 830,643

Public service. - - - 1,157,835 139,734 1,297,569

Liberal professions - - 226,561 173,278 399,839

Mining, quarries - - - 261,320 5,031 266,351

Fishing 63,372 4,400 67,772

Up,classed 14,316 4,504 18,820

Grand Total. -_- 12,910,565 6,804,5,0 19,715,075

Religion.

Great alterations were made with regard to religious matters in France by a law of December 1905, supplemented by a law of January 1907 (see below, Law and Institutions). Before that time three religions (cultes) were recognized and supported by the state-the Roman Catholic, the Protestant (subdivided into the Reformed and Lutheran) and the Hebrew. In Algeria the Mahommedan religion received similar recognition. By the law of 1905 all the churches ceased to be recognized or supported by the state and became entirely separated therefrom, while the adherents of all creeds were permitted to form associations for public worship (associations cultuelles), upon which the expenses of maintenance were from that time to devolve. The state, the departments, and the communes were thus relieved from the payment of salaries and grants to religious bodies, an item of expenditure which amounted in the last year of the old system to 1,101,000 paid by the state and 302,200 contributed by the departments and communes. Before these alterations the relations between the state and the Roman Catholic communion, by far the largest and most important in France, were chiefly regulated by the provisions of the Concordat of 1801, concluded between the first consul, Bonaparte, and Pope Pius VII. and by other measures passed in 1802.

France is divided into provinces and dioceses as follows:

Archbishoprics. Bishoprics.

PARIs. - - Chartres, Meaux, Orleans, Blois, Versailles.

Aix.. - Marseilles, Frjus, Digne, Gap, Nice, Ajaccio.

ALBI. .. Rodez, Cahors, Mende, Perpignan.

Aucii.. - Aire, Tarbes, Bayonne.

AVIGNON - - Nimes, Valence, Viviers, Montpellier.

BESANON - - Verdun, Bellay, St Die, Nancy.

BORDEAUX - Agen, Angoulme, Poitiers, Prigueux, La Rochelle, Luon.

BOURGE5 - - Clermont, Limoges, Le Puy, Tulle, St Flour.

CAMBRAI -. Arras.

CHAMBERY - Annecy, Tarentaise, St Jean-de-Maurienne.

Lvnw~ A,,i-,,n I ,,no-r~ ~ ci- ~ G,-nnohlp, Archbishoprics. Bishoprics.

REIMS. -. Soissons, Chlons-sur-Marne, Beauvais, Amiens.

RENNES. - Quimper, Vannes, St Brieuc.

ROUEN - - - Bayeux, Evreux, Sees, Coutances.

SENS - - - Troyes, Nevers, Moulins.

TouLousE - Montauban, Pamiers, Carcassonne.

TOURS - - - Le Mans, Angers, Nantes, Laval.

The dioceses are divided into parishes each under a parish priest known as a cur or desservant (incumbent). The bishops and archbishops, formerly nominated by the government and canonically confirmed by the pope, are now chosen by the latter. The appointment of cures rested with the bishops and had to be confirmed by the government, but this confirmation is now dispensed with. The archbishops used to receive an annual salary of 600 each and the bishops 400.

The archbishops and bishops are assisted by vicars-general (at salaries previously ranging from 100 to ~18o), and to each cathedral is attached a chapter of canons. A cure, in addition to his regular salary, received fees for baptisms, marriages, funerals and special masses, and had the benefit of a free house called a presbytre. The total personnel of state-paid Roman Catholic clergy amounted in 1903 to 36,169. The Roman priests are drawn from the seminaries, established by the church for the education of young men intending to join its ranks, and divided into lower and higher seminaries (grands et petits sminaires), the latter giving the same class of instruction as the tyces.

The number of Protestants may be estimated at about 600,000 and the Jews at about 70,000. The greatest number of Jews is to be found at Paris, Lyons and Bordeaux, while the departments of the centre and of the south along the range of the Cvennes, where Calvinism flourishes, are the principal Protestant localities, Nimes being the most important centre. Considerable sprinklings of Protestants are also to be found in the two Charentes, in Dauphin, in Paris and in Franche-Comt. The two Protestant bodies used to cost the state about 60,000 a year and the Jewish Church about 6000.

Both Protestant churches have a parochial organization and a presbyterian form of church government. In the Reformed Church (far the more numerous of the two bodies) each parish has a council of presbyters, consisting of the pastor and lay-members elected by the congregation. Several ____________________

parishes form a consistorial circum- Aven scription, which has a consistorial (Thou council consisting of the council of presbyters of the chief town of the i8861~

circumscription, the pastor and one delegate of the council of presbyters Wheat. ... 17,00,

from each parish and other elected Meslin. ... ~ members. There are 103 circum- Rye.. - - 3,88~ scriptions (including Algeria), which Barley. .. - 2,3o~ are grouped into 21 provincial synods Oats. .. 9,50 composed of a pastor and lay dde- Buckwheat - 1,48 gate from each consistory. All the Maize - - - 1,39 more important questions of church discipline and all decisions regulating the doctrine and practice of the church are dealt with by the synods. At the head of the whole organization is a General Synod, sitting at Paris. The organization of the Lutheran Church (Eglise de la confession dAugsburg) is broadly similar. Its consistories are grouped into two special synods, one at Paris and one at Montbliard (for the department of Doubs and Haute-Sane and the territory of Belfort, where the churches of this denomination are principally situated). It also has a general synodcomposed of 2 inspectors,i 5 pastors elected by the synod of Paris, and 6 by that of Montbliard, 22 laymen and a delegate of the theological faculty at Pariswhich holds periodical meetings and is represented in its relations with the government by a permanent executive commission.

The Jewish parishes, called synagogues, are grouped into departmental consistories (Paris, Bordeaux, Nancy, Marseilles, Bayonne, Lille, Vesoul, Besancon and three in Algeria). Each synagogue is served by a rabbi assisted by an officiating minister, and in each consistory is a grand rabbi. At Paris is the central consistory, controlled by the government and presided over by the supreme grand rabbi.

Agriculture.

Of the population of France some 17,000,000 depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, though only about 6,500,000 are engaged in work on the land. The cultivable land of the country occupies some 195,000 s~. m. or about 94% of the total area; of this 171,000 sq. m. are cultivated. There are besides 12,300 sq. m. of uncultivable area covered by lakes, rivers, towns, &c. Only the roughest estimate is possible as to the sizes of holdings, but in general terms it may be said that about 3 million persons are proprietors of holdings under 25 acres in extent amounting to between 15 and 20% of the cultivated area, the rest being owned by some 750,000 proprietors, of whom 150,000 possess half the area in holdings averaging 400 acres in extent. About 80% of holdings (amounting to about 6o% of the cultivated area) are cultivated by the proprietor; of the rest approximately 13% are let on lease and 7% are worked on the system known as mtayage (q.v.).

The capital value of land, which greatly decreased during the last twenty years of the i9th century, is estimated at 3,120,000,000, and that of stock, buildings, implements, &c., at 340,000,000. The value per acre of land, which exceeds 48 in the departments of Seine, Rhne and those fringing the north-west coast from Nord to Manche inclusive, is on the average about 29, though it drops to 16 and less in Morbihan, Landes, Basses-Pyrnes, and parts of the Alps and the central plateau.

While wheat and wine constitute the staples of French agriculture, its distinguishing characteristic is the variety of its products. Cereals occupy about one-third of the cultivated area. For the production of wheat, in respect of which France is self-supporting, French Flanders, the Seine basin, notably the Beauce and the Brie, and the regions bordering on the lower course of the Loire and the upper course of the Garonne, are the chief areas. Rye, on the other hand, one of the least valuable of the cereals, is grown chiefly in the poor agricultural territories of the central plateau and western Brittany. Buckwheat is cultivated mainly in Brittany. Oats and barley are generally cultivated, the former more especially in the Parisian region, the latter in Mayenne and one or two of the neighboring departments. Meslin, a mixture of wheat and rye, is produced in the great majority of French departments, but to a marked extent in the basin of the Sarthe. Maize covers considerable areas in Landes, Basses-Pyrnes and other south-western departments.

ge Acreage Average Production Average Yield ands of Acres). (Thousands of Bushels). per Acre (Bushels).

95.1896-1905 . f886f895.1896-1905.1886-1895.1896-1905 .

- 16,580 294,564 317,707 17.3 I9~1

491 12,193 8,826 16.9 17O

3,439 64,651 56,612 I6~6 16.4

1,887 47,197 41,066 20~4 2I~0

9,601 240,082 253,799 25.2 26.4

- 1,392, 26,345 23,136 I77 166

1,330 25,723 24,459 18.4 18.4

Forage Crops.The mangold-wurzel, occupying four times the acreage of swedes and turnips, is by far the chief root-crop in France. It is grown largely in the departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais and in those of the Seine basin, the southern limit of its cultivation being roughly a line drawn from Bordeaux to Lyons. The average area occupied by it in the years from 1896 to 1905 was 1,043,000 acres, the total average production being 262,364,000 cwt. and the average production per acre f 03/4 tons. Clover, lucerne and sainfoin make up the bulk of artificial pasturage, while vetches, crimson clover and cabbage are the other chief forage crops.

Vegetables.Potatoes are not a special product of any region, though grown in great quantities in the Bresse and the Vosges. Early potatoes and other vegetables (primeurs) are largely cultivated in the districts bordering the English Channel. Market-gardenin is an important industry in the regions round Paris, Amiens an Angers, as it is round Toulouse, Montauban,Avignon and in southern France generally. The market-gardeners of Paris and its vicinity have a high reputation for skill in the forcing of early vegetables under glass.

Potatoes: Decennial Averages.

Average Yield Acreage. Total Yield per Acre (Ions). (Tons).

1886-1895 3,690,000 11,150,000 3.02

1896-1905 3,735,000 11,594,000 3.1

Industrial Plants.s T he manufacture of sugar from beetroot, owing to the increased~use of sugar, became highly important during Cultures -industriellesUnder this head the French group beetroot, hemp, flax and other plants, the products of which pass through some process of manufacture before they reach the consu mer.

the latter half of the 19th century, the industry both of cultivation and manufacture being concentrated in the northern departments of Aisne, Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Somme and Oise, the first named supplying nearly a quarter of the whole amount produced in France.

Flax and hemp showed a decreasing acreage from 1881 onwards. Flax is cultivated chiefly in the northern departments of Nord, Seine- Infrieure, Pas-de-Calais, Ctes-du-Nord, hemp in Sarthe, Morbihan and Maine-ct-Loire.

Colsa, grown chiefly in the lower basin of the Seine (SeineInfrieure and Eure), is the most important of the oil-producing plants, all of which show a diminishing acreage. The three principal regions for the production of tobacco are the basin of the Garonne (Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot and Gironde), the basin of the Isre (Isre and Savoie) and the department of Pas-de-Calais. The state controls its cultivation, which is allowed only in a limited number of departments. Hops cover only about 7000 acres, being almost confined to the departments of Nord, Cte dOr and Meurthe-etMoselle.

Decennial Averages i8pz 905.

Average Yield Acreage. Production per Acre (Tons). (Tons).

Sugar beet. - 672,000 6,868,000 Io~2

Hemp.. - 64,856 18,451 i ~28 i Flax. - - 57,893 17,857 i .301

Colza.. 102,454 47,697 ~46

Tobacco. - 41,564 22,453.54

Vineyards (see WINE).The vine grows generally in France, except in the extreme north and in Normandy and Brittany. The great wine-producing regions are:

I. The country fringing the Mediterranean coast and including Hrault (240,822,000 gals. in 1905), and Aude (i 17,483,000 gals. in 1905), the most productive departments in France in this respect.

2. The department of Gironde (95,559,000 gals. in 1905), whence come Mdoc and the other wines for which Bordeaux is the market.

3. The lower valley of the Loire, including Touraine and Anjou, and the district of Saumur.

4. lhe valley of the Rhne.

5. The Burgundian region, including Cte dOr and the valley of the Sane (Beaujolais, Mconnais).

6. The Champagne.

7. The Charente region, the grapes of which furnish brandy, as do those of Armagnac (department of Gers).

The decennial averages for the years 1896-1905 were as follows:

Acreage of productive vines.. 4,056,725

Total production in gallons.. 1,o~2,622,00o Average production in gallons per acre.. 260

FruitFruit-growing is general all over France, which, apart from bananas and pine-apples, produces in the open air all the ordinary species of fruit which its inhabitants consume. Some of these may be specially mentioned. The cider apple, which ranks first in importance, is produced in those districts where cider is the habitual drink, that is to say, ___________________________________ chiefly in the region north-west of a line drawn from Paris to the Cattle.

mouth of the Loire. The average Other annual production of cider dur- Cows. Kinds ing the years 1896 to 1905 was ______________________

304,884,000 gallons. Dessert apples 1885 6,414,487 6,690 483 13

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

lower Loire, the valley of which abounds in orchards wherein many varieties of fruit flourish and in nursery-gardens. The hilly regions of Limousin, Prigord and the Cvennes are the home of the chestnut, which in some places is still a staple food; walnuts grow on the lower levels of the central plateau and in lower Dauphin and Provence, figs and almonds in Provence, oranges and citrons on the Mediterranean coast, apricots in central France, the olive in Provcnce and the lower valleys of the Rhneand Durancc. Truffles arc found under Silk Cocoons. 1891-1895.1896-1900.1901-1905.

Annual average pro-n duction over quln- L 19 c87 000 17,696,000 16,566 000

quennial periods in lb.

the oaks of Perigord, Comtat-Venaissin and lower Dauphin. The mulberry grows in the valleys of the Rhne and its tributaries, the lsre, the Drme, the Ardche, the Gard and the Durance, and also along the coast of the Mediterranean. Silk-worm rearing, which is encouraged by state grants, is carried on in the valleys mentioned and on the Mediterranean coast east of Marseilles. The numbers of growers decreased from 139,000 in 1891 to 124,000 in 1905. The decrease in the annual average production of cocoons is shown in the preceding table.

Snails are reared in some parts of the country as an article of food, those of Burgundy being specially esteemed.

Stock-raisIngFrom this point of view the soil of France may be divided into four categories:

I. The rich pastoral regions where dairy-farming and the fattening of cattle are carried on with most success, viz. (a) Normandy, Perche, Cotentin and maritime Flanders, where horses are bred in great numbers; (b) the strip of coast between the Gironde and the mouth of the Loire; (c) the Morvan including the Nivernais and the Charolais, from which the famous Charolais breed of oxen takes its name; (d) the central region of the central plateau including the districts of Cantal and Aubrac, the home of the famous beef-breeds of Salers and Aubrac.1 The famous pre-sal sheep are also reared in the Vende and Cotentin.

2. The poorer grazing lands on the upper levels of the Alps, Pyrenees, Jura and Vosges, the Landes, the more outlying regions of the central plateau, southern Brittany, Sologne, Berry, ChampagnePouilleuse, the Crau and the Carnargue, these districts being given over for the most part to sheep-raising.

3. The plain of Toulouse, which with the rest of south-western France produces good draught oxen, the Parisian basin, the plains of the north to the east of the maritime region, the lower valley of the Rhflne and tile Bresse, where there is little or no natural pasturage, and forage is grown from seed.

4. West, west-central and eastern France outside these areas, where meadows are predominant and both dairying and fattening are general. Included therein are the dairying and horse-raising district of northern Brittany and the dairying regions of Jura and Savoy.

In the industrial regions of northern France cattle are stall-fed with the waste products of the beet-sugar factories, oil-works and distilleries. Swine, bred all over France, are more numerous in Brittany, Anjou (whence comes the well-known breed of Craon), Poitou, Burgundy, the west and north of the central plateau and Beam. Upper Poitou and the zone of south-western France to the north of the Pyrenees are the chief regions for the breeding of mules. Asses are reared in Beam, Corsica, Upper Poitou, the Limousin, Berry and other central regions. Goats are kept in the mountainous regions (Auvergne, Provence, Corsica). The best poultry come from the Bresse, the district of Houdan (Seine-et-Oise), the district of Le Mans and Crveccuur (Calvados).

- The prs naturels (meadows) and herbages (unmown pastures) of France, i.e. the grass-land of superior quality as distinguished from paturages et pacages, which signifies pasture of poorer quality, incteased in area between 1895 and 1905 as is shown bel0w:

1895 (Acres). 1905 (Acres).

PrCs naturels. - 10,852,000 11,715,000

Herbages. .. 2,822,000 3,022,000

The following table shows the number of live stock in the country at intervals of ten years since 1885.

Sheep and Lambs Pigs. Horses. Mules. Asses.

Iotal.

104,970 22,616,547 5,881,088 2,911,392 238,620 387,227

233,828 2I,163,767 6,306,019 2,812,447 211,479 357,778

315,552 17,783,209 7,558,779 3,169,224 198,865 365,181

Agricultural Organizalion.In France the interests of agriculture are entrusted to a special ministry, comprising the following divisions: (1) forests, (2) breeding-studs (haras); (3) agriculture, a department which supervises agricultural instruction and the distribution of grants and premiums; (4) agricultural improvements, draining, irrigation, &c.; (5) an intelligence department which prepares statistics, issues information as to prices and markets, &c. The minister is assisted by a superior council of agriculture, the members of which, numbering a hundred, include senators, deputies and prominent agriculturists. The ministry employs inspectors, whose duty it is to visit the different parts of the country and to report on their respective position and wants. The reports which they furnish help to determine the distribution of the moneys dispensed by the state in the form of siibventions to agriculturar l The chief breeds of horses are the Boulonnais (heavy draught). the Percheron (light and heavy draught), the Anglo-Norman (light draught and heavy cavalry)and the Tarbais of the weStern Pyrenees (saddle horses and light cavalry). Of cattle besides the breeds named the Norman (beef and milk), the Limousin (beef), the Mont bfiard, the Bazadais, the Flamand, the Breton and tile larthenais breeds may be mentioned, societies and in many other ways. The chief type of agricultural society is the cornice agricole, an association for the discussion of agricultural problems and the organization of provincial shows. There are besides several thousands of local syndicates, engaged in the purchase of materials and sale of produce on the most advantageous terms for their members, credit banks and mutual insurance societies (see Co-OPERATION). Three societies demand special mention: the Union centrale des agriculteurs de France, to which the above syndicates are affiliated; the Sociit nationale dagriculture, whose mission is to further agricultural progress and to supply the government with information on everything appertaining thereto and the Socit des agriculteurs de France.

Among a variety of premiums awarded by the state are those for the best cultivated estates and for irrigation works, and to the owners of the best stallions and brood-mares. Haras or stallion stables containing in all over 3000 horses are established in twentytwo central towns, and annually send stallions, which are at the disposal of private individuals in return for a small fee, to various stations throughout the country. Other institutions belonging to the state are the national sheep-fold of Rambouillet (Seine-et-Oise) and the cow-house of Vieux-Pin (Orne) for the breeding of Durham cows. Four different grades of institution for agricultural instruction are under state direction: (I) farm-schools and schools of apprenticeship in dairying, &c., to which the age of admission is from 14 to 16 years; (2) practical schools, to which boys of from 13 to 18 years of age are admitted. These number forty-eight, and are intended for sons of farmers Of good position; (3) national schools, which are established at Grignon (Seine-et-Oise), Rennes and Montpellier, candidates for which must be 17 years of age; (4) the National Agronomic Institute at Paris, which is intended for the training of estate agents, professors, &c. There are also departmental chairs of agriculture, the holders of which give instruction in training-colleges and elsewhere and advise farmers.

Forests.In relation to its total extent, France presents D ai but a very limited area of forest land, amounting to only ep 36,700 sq. m. or about 18% of the entire surface of the country. Included under the denomination of forest N rd are landssurfaces boisieswhich are bush rather than T rrito forest. The most wooded parts of France are the mountains Loire and plateaus of the east and of the north-east, comprising Seine the pine-forests of the Vosges and Jura (including the beau- Bouch~e tiful Forest of Chaux), the Forest of Haye, the Forest of Rhne Ardennes, the Forest of Argonne, &c.; the Landes, where M rth replanting with maritime pines has transformed large areas Ardenn of marsh into forest; and the departments of Var and Vos as Arige. The Central Mountains and the Morvan also have Pa ~leconsiderable belts of wood. In the Parisian region there Seine-li are the Forests of Fontainebleau (66 sq. In.), of Compibgne (56 sq. m.), of Rambouillet, of Villers-Cotterets, &c. The Forest of Orleans, the largest in France, covers about 145 sq. m. The Alps and Pyrenees are in large part deforested, but reafforestation with a view to minimizing the effects of avalanches and sudden floods is continually in progress.

Of the forests of the country approximately one-third belongs to the state, communes and public institutions. The rest belongs to private owners who are, however, subject to certain restrictions. The Department of Waters i and Forests (Administration des Eaux et Forts) forms a branch of the min istry of agriculture. It is adminis- Groups.

tered by a director-general, who has his headquarters at Paris, assisted by three administrators who are charged with the working of the forests, Nord and Pas-de- 3 Valei questions of rights and law, finance Calais.. - Le B

and plantation works. The estab lishment consists of 32 conserVators, I St E

each at the head of a district corn-. j Com prising one or more departments, 200 oire -.) Ste I

inspectors, 215 sub-inspectors and L Roar about 300 gardes ginraux. These __________________

officials form the higher grade of the Alai~

service (agents). There are besides Gard. .. - l Aub several thousand forest-rangers and (Le \?

other ernploys (prposs). The de- ____________________

partment is supplied with officials of ~ Dcci the higher class from the National Bourgogne and J La C School of Waters and Forests at Nivernais. - 1 Bert Nancy, founded in 1824.. t Sinc Industries. ~ Aubi Tarn and Aveyron ~ R d In France, as in other countries, L ~

the development of machinery, with surveillance over river-fishing, Bourbonnais ~LAt pisciculture and the amelioration of La ~

pasture.

whether run by steam, water-power or other motive forces, has played a great part in the promotion of industry; the increase in the amount of steam horse-power employed in industrial establishments is, to a certain degree, an index to the activity of the country as regards manufactures.

The appended table shows the progress made since 1850 with regard to steam power. Railway and marine locomotives are not included.

No. of No. of Total Years. Establishments. Steam-Engines. Horse- Power.

1852 6,543 6,080 76,000

1861 14,153 15,805 191,000

1871 22,192 26,146 316,000

1881 35,712 44,010 576,000

1891 46,828 58,967 916,000

1901 58,151 75,866 1,907,730

1905 61,112 79,203 2,232,263

With the exception of Loire, Bouches-du-Rhbne and Rhne, the chief industrial departments of France are to be found in the north and north-east of the country. In 1901 and 1896 those in which the working inhabitants of both sexes were engaged in industry as opposed to agriculture to the extent of 50% (approximately) or over, nufnbered eleven, viz.:

Percentage engaged Total Working Industrial in Industry.

tments. Population Population (1901). (1901). 1901.1896.

-. - 848,306 544,177 64.15 63.45

re de Belfort 40,703 24,470 60.10 58.77

- - 292,808 167,693 57.27 54.73

- - 2,071,344 1,143,809 55.22 53.54

-du-Rhne - 341,823 187,801 54.94 51.00

- - - 449,121 243,571 54.23 54~78

e-et-Moselle 215,5o1 115,214 53~46 50.19

Is.. 139,270 73,250 52.60 52.42

208,142 107,547 51.67 51.05

alais. 404,153 200,402 49.58 46.55

ifbrieure - 428,591 206,612 48.21 4985

The department of Seine, comprising Paris and its suburbs, which has the largest manufacturing population, is largely occupied with the manufacture of dress, millinery and articles of luxury (perfumery, &c.), but it plays the leading part in almost every great branch of industry with the exception of Average Production (Thousands of Basins. Departments. Metric Tons)

1901-1905.

ciennes Nord, Pas-de-Calais ~ 20 96

)ulonnais Pas-de-Calais 5

ienne and Rive-de-Gier Loire nunay Isbre 3 601

oy lArgentibre Rhbne .nais Loire Gard, Arc~bche)

nas Ardche 1,954

igan Gard)

~e Nivre hapelle-sous-Dun Sabne-.et-Loire L 1 881

Allier Cbte-dOr n Aveyron 1

laux and Albi Tarn 1,770

z Aveyron j ~rdoux Lot inentry and Doyet Allier oi Puy-de-Dme mance Allier ueune Allier spinning and weaving. The typically industrial region of France is the department of Nord, the seat of the woollen industry, but also prominently concerned in other textile industries, in metal working, and in a variety of other manufactures, fuel for which is supplied by its coal-fields. The following sketch of the manufacturing industry of France takes account chiefly of those of its branches which are capable in some degree of localization. Many of the great industries of the country, e.g. tanning, brick-making, the manufacture of garments, &c., are evenly distributed throughout it, and are to be found in or near all larger centres of population.

Coal.The principal mines of France are coal and iron mines. The production of coal and lignite averaging 33,465,000 metric tons in the years 1901-1905 represents about 73% of the total consumption of the country; the surplus is supplied from Great Britain, Belgium and Germany. The preceding table shows the average output of the chief coal-groups for the years 1901-1905 inclusive. The Flemish coal-basin, employing over 100,000 hands, produces 60% of the coal mined in France.

French lignite comes for the most part from the department of BOuches-du-Rhne (near Fuveau).

The development of French coal and lignite mining in the i9th century, together with records of prices, which rose considerably at the end of the period, is set forth in the table below:

Average Yearly Average Price Production per Ton at Years. (Thousands of Pit Mouth Metric Tons). (Francs).

1821-1830 1,495 10.23

1831-1840 2,571 9.83

1841-1850 4,078.5 9.69

1851I 860 6,857 11.45

1861-1870 11,831 i1~61

1871-1880 16,774 1434

1881-1890 21,542 11.55

1891-1900 29,190 11.96

1901-1903 33,465 14.18

Iron.The iron-mines of France are more numerous than its coalmines, but they do not yield a sufficient quantity of ore for the needs of the metallurgical industries of the country; as will be seen in the table below the production of iron in France gradually increased during the 19th century; on the other hand, a decline in prices operated against a correspondingly marked increase in its annual value.

Average Annual Production Price per Years. (Thousands of Metric Ton Metric Tons). (Francs).

1841-1850 1247 6.76

1851-1860 2414.5 5.51

1861f 870 3035 4.87

1871-1880 2514 539

1881-1890 2934 3.99

1891-1900 4206 3.37

1901-1905 6072 3.72

The department of Meurthe-et-Moselle (basins of Nancy and Longwy-Briey) furnished 84% of the total output during the quinquennial period 1901-1905, may be reckoned as one of the principal iron-producing regions of the world. The other chief producers were Pyrnes-Orientales, Calvados, Haute-Marne (Vassy) and Saneet-Loire (Mazenay and Change).

Other OresThe mining of zinc the chief deposits of which are at Malines (Gard), Les Bormettes ~Var) and Planioles (Lot), and of lead, produced especially at Chaliac (Ardche), ranks next in importance to that of iron. Iron-pyrites come almost entirely from Department. Chief Centre Seine -. -

Nord Lille, Anzin, Denain, Douai, I

Loire Rive-de-Gier, Firminy, StEtie Meurthe-et-Moselle -. Pont--Mousson, Frouard, Lor Ardennes Charleville, Nouzon Sain-Bel (Rhne), manganese chiefly from Ariege and Sane-et. Loire, antimony from the departments of Mayenne, Haute-Loire and Cantal. Copper and mispickel are mined only in small quantities. The table below gives the average production of zinc, argentiferous lead, iron-pyrites and other ores during the quinquennial period 1901f 905.

Production (Thousands of Value ~

Metric Tons).

Zinc -. 60.3 206,912

Lead - - - 18.5 100,424

Iron-pyrites - 297.2 170,312

Other ores - 36O 68,376

Salt, &c.Rock-salt is worked chiefly in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle,which produces more than half the average annual product of salt. For the years I8961905-this was 1,010,000 tons, including both rock- and sea-salt. The salt-marshes of the Mediterranean coast, especially the Etang de Berre and those of LoireInfrieure, are the principal sources of sea-salt. Sulphur is obtained near Apt (Vaucluse) and in a few other localities of south-eastern France; bituminous schist near Autun (Sane-et-Loire) and Buxires (Allier). The most extensive peat-workings are in the valleys of the Somme; asphalt comes from Seyssel (Am) and Puyde-Dme.

The mineral springs of France are numerous, of varied character and much frequented. Leading resorts are: in the Pyrenean region, Amlie-les-Bains, Bagnres-de-Luchon, Bagnres-de-Bigorre, Bareges, Cauterets, Eaux-Bonnes, Eaux-Chaudes and Dax; in the Central Plateau, Mont-Dore, La Bourboule, Bourbon lArchambault, Vichy, Royat, Chaudes-Aigues, Vals, Lamalon; in the Alps, Aix-les-Bains and Evian; in the Vosges and Faucilles, Plombires, Luxeuil, Contrexville, Vittel, Martigny and Bourbonne-les-Bains. Outside these main groups St Amand-les-Eaux and Foyes-les-Eaux may be mentioned.

Qiuirry-Products.Quarries of various descriptions are numerous all over France. Slate is obtained in large quantities from the departments of Maine-ct-Loire (Angers), Ardennes (Fumay) and Mayenne (Renaz). Stone-quarrying is specially active in the departments round Paris, Seine-et-Oise employing more persons in this occupation than any other department. The environs of Creil (Oise) and Chteau-Landon (Seine-et-Marne) are noted for their freestone (pierre de taille), which is also abundant at Euville and Lrouville in Meuse; the production of plaster is particularly important in the environs of Paris, of kaolin of fine quality at Yrieix (1-Jaute-Vienne), of hydraulic lime in Ardche (Le Teil), of lime phosphates in the department of Somme, of marble in the departments of HauteGaronne (St Beat), Hautes-Pyrnes (Campan, Sarrancolin), Isre and Pas-de-Calais, and of cement in Pas-de-Calais (vicinity of Boulogne) and Isre (Grenoble). Paving-stone is supplied in large quantities by Seine-et-Oise, and brick-clay is worked chiefly in Nord, Seine and Pas-de-Calais. The products of the quarries of France for the five years 1901-1905 averaged 9,311,000 per annum in value, of which building material brought in over two-thirds.

Metallurgy.The average production and value of iron and steel manufactured in France in the last four decades of the I 9th century is shown below Cast Iron. Wroughi Iron and SteeL

Product Product Years. (Thousinds ue, (Thousands ~ a ue of Metric OUsaji i of Metric ousan S

Tons). Tons). ~ -

1861-1870 1191.5 5012 844 8,654

1871-1880 1391 5783 1058.5 11,776

1881-1890 1796 5119 1376 11,488

f8911900 2267 5762, i686 i~,54o 1903 2841 7334 1896 15,389

Taking the number of hands engaged in the industry as a basis of comparison, the most important departments as regards iron and steel working in 1901 were:

Hands engaged in Production of Hands engaged in Engineering;. Production of Material and Pig-Iron and Steel. Manufactured Goods.

- - - 600 102,500

lautmont, Maubeuge 14,000 45,000

the, St Chamond 9,500 17,500

gwy, Nancy 16,500 6,500

800 23,000

ilogrammes or 2204 lb.

Rhflne (Lyons), Saflne-et-Loire (Le Creusot, Chalon-sur-Sane) and Loire-Infrieure (Basse-Indre, Indret, Coueron, Trignac) also play a considerable part in this industry.

The chief centres for the manufacture of cutlery are Chfittelerault (Vienne), Langres (Haute-Marne) and Thiers (Puy-de-Dme); for that of arms St Etienne, Tulle and Chttelerault; for that of watches and clocks, Besancon (Doubs) and Montbliard (Doubs); for that of optical and mathematical instruments Paris, Morez (Jura) and St Claude (Jura); for that of locksmiths ware the region of Vimeu (Pas-de-Calais).

There are important zinc works at Auby and St Amand (Nord) and Viviez (Aveyron) and Noyelles-Godault (Pas-de-Calais); there are lead works at the latter place, and others of greater irirportance at Couron (Loire-Infrieure). Copper is smelted in Ardennes and Pas-de-Calais. The production of these metals, which are by far the most important after iron and steel, increased steadily during the period I89oI9o~, and reached its highest point in 1905, details for which year are given below:

Zinc. Lead.~j Copper.1

Production (in metric tons) 43,200 24,100 7,600

Value 1,083,000 386,000 526,000

WoolIn 1901, 161,000 persons were engaged in the spinning and other preparatory processes and in the weaving of wool. The woollen industry is carried on most extensively in the department of Nord (Roubaix, Tourcoing, Fourmies). Of second rank are Reims and Sedan in the Champagne group; Elbeuf, Louviers and Rouen in Normandy; and Mazamet (Tarn).

Cotton.In 1901, 166,000 persons were employed in the spinning and weaving of cotton, French cotton goods being distinguished chiefly for the originality of their design. The cotton industry is distributed in three principal groups. The longest established is that of Normandy, having its centres at Rouen, Havre, Evreux, Falaise and Flers. Another group in the north of France has its centres at Lille, Tourcoing, Roubaix, St Quentin and Amiens. That of the Vosges, which has experienced a great extension since the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, comprises Epinal, St Die, Remiremont and Belfort. Other groups of less importance are situated in the Lyonnais (Roanne and Tarare) and Mayenne (Laval and Mayenne).

Silk.The silk industry occupied f34,000 hands in 1901. The silk fabrics of France hold the first place, particularly the more expensive kinds The industry is concentrated in the departments bordering the river Rhne, the chief centres being Lyons (Rhne), Voiron (Isre), St Etienne and St Chamond (~~oire) (the two latter being especially noted for their ribbons and trimmings) and Annonay (Ardche) and other places in the departments of Am, Gard and Drme.

Flax, Hemp, Jute, &c.The preparation and spinning of these materials and the manufacture of nets and rope, together with the weaving of linen and other fabrics, give occupation to 112,000 persons chiefly in the departments of Nord (Lille, Armentires, Dunkirk), Somme (Amiens) and Maine-et-Loire (Angers, Cholet).

Hosiery, the manufacture of which employs 55,000 hands, has its chief centre in Aube (Troyes). The production of lace and guipure, occupying 112,000 persons, is carried on mainly in the towns and villages of Haute-Loire and in Vosges (Mirecourt), Rhne (Lyons), Pas-de-Calais (Calais) and Paris.

Leather.Tanning and leather-dressing are widely spread industries, and the same may be said of the manufacture of boots and shoes, though these trades employ more hands in the department of Seine than elsewhere; in the manufacture of gloves Isre (Grenoble) and Aveyron (Millau) hold the first place amongst French departments.

Sugar.The manufacture of sugar is carried on in the departments of the north, in which the cultivation of beetroot is general Aisne, Nord, Somme, Pas-de-Calais, Oise and Seine-et-Marne, the three first being by far the largest producers. The increase in production in the last twenty years of the 19th century is indicated in the following table: Average Annual Years. Annual Average of Production in Men employed. Metric Tons.

1881-1891 43,108 415,786

1891-1901 42,841 696,038

1901-1906 43,061 820,553

AlcohoLThe distillation of alcohol is in the hands of three classes of persons. (1) Professional distillers (bouilleurs et distillateurs de profession); (2) private distillers (bouilieurs de cru) under state control~ (3) small private distillers, not under state control, but giving notice to the state that they distil. The two last classes number over 400,000 (1903), but the quantity of alcohol distilled by them is small. Beetroot, molasses and grain are the chief sources of spirit. The department of Nord produces by far the greatest quantity, its average annual output in the decade 1895-1904

being 13,117,000 gallons, or about 26% of the average annual production of France during the same period (49,945,000 gallons).

Aisne, Pas-de-Calais and Somme rank next to Nord.

Glass is manufactured in the departments of Nord (Aniche, &c.), Seine, Loire (Rive-de-Gier) and Meurthe-et-Moselle, Baccarat in the latter department being famous for its table-glass. Limoges is the chief centre for the manufacture of porcelain, and the artistic products of the national porcelain factory of Svres have a world. wide reputation.

The manufacture of paper and cardboard is largely carried on In Isre (Voiron), Seine-et-Oise (Essonnes), Vosges (Epinal) and of the finer sorts of paper in Charente (Angoulenie). That of oil, candles and soap has its chief centre at Marseilles. Brewing and malting are localized chiefly in Nord. There are well-known chemical works at Dombasle (close to Nancy) and Chauny (Aisne) and in Rhhne.

Occupations.The following table, which shows the approximate numbers of persons engaged in the various manufacturing industries of France, who number in all about 5,820,000, indicates their relative importance from the point of view of employment:

Occupation. 1901.1866.

Baking 163,500. -

Milling 99,400

Charcuterie 39,600

Other alimentary industries - - 161,500 - -

Alimentary industries: total -. 464,000 308,000

Gas-works 26,000 -.

Tobacco factories 16,000

Oil-works jo,ooo Other chemical 1 industries 58,000 - -

Chemical industries: total - - - 110,000 49,000

Rubber factories 9,000 2 000

Paper factories 61,000 S ~

Typographic and lithographic printing 76,000 j - -

Other branches of book production - 23,000 - -

Book production: total - - - 99,000 38,000

Spinning and weaving - - - - 892,000 1,072,000

Clothing, millinery and making up of fabrics generally - - - - - - 1,484,000)

_____________________________ ________- ~.

Basket work, straw goods, feathers 39,000

Leather and skin 338,000 286,000

Joinery 153,000 - - -

Builders carpentering 94,900. -

Wheelwrights work 82,700

Cooperage 46,600

Wooden shoes 52,400 -.

Other wood industries - - 280,400 - -

Wood industries: total - 710,000 671,000

Metallurgy and metal working 783,000 345,000

Goldsmiths and jewellers work 35,000 55,000

Stone-working 56,000 12,000

Construction, building, decorating 572,000 443,000

Glass manufacture 43,000 -.

Tiles 29,000 - -

Porcelain and faIence 27,000 - -

Bricks 17,000 - -

Other kiln industries - - - 45,000 - -

Kiln industries: total 161 000 110,000

Some 9000 individuals were engaged in unclassified industries.

Fisheries.The fishing population of France is most numerous in the Breton departments of Finisire, Cfltes-du-Nord and Morbihan and in Pas-de-Calais. Dunkirk, Gravelines, Boulogne and Paimpol send considerable fleets to the Icelandic cod-fisheries, and St Malo, Fcainp, Granville and Cancale to those of Newfoundland. The Dogger Bank is frequented by numbers of French fishing-boats.

1 Includes manufactories of glue, tallow, soap, perfumery, fertilizers, soda, &c.

Besides the above, Boulogne, the most important fishing port in the country, Calais, Dieppe, Concarneau, Douarnenez, Les Sables dOlonne, La Rochelle, Marennes and Arcachon are leading ports for the herring, sardine, mackerel and other coast-fisheries of the ocean, while Cette, Agde and other Mediterranean ports are engaged in the tunny and anchovy fisheries. Sardine preserving is an important industry at Nantes and other places on the west coast. Oysters are reared chiefly at Marennes, which is the chief French market for them, and at Arcachon, Vannes, Olron, Auray, Cancale and Courseulles. The total value of the produce of fisheries increased from 4,537,000 in 1892 to f5,259,000 in 1902. In 1902 the number of men employed in the home fisheries was 144,000 and the number of vessels 25,481 (tonnage 127,000); in the deep-sea fisheries 10,500 men and 450 vessels (tonnage 51,000) were employed.

Communications.

l~oads.Admirab1e highways known as routes nationales and kept up at the expense of the state radiate from Paris to the great towns of France. Averaging 524 ft. in breadth, they covered in 1905 a distance of nearly 24,000 m. The cole des Fonts et Chausses at Paris is maintained by the government for the training of the engineers for the construction and upkeep of roads and bridges. Each department controls and maintains the routes dpartementales, usually good macadamized roads connecting the chief places within its limits and extending in 1903 over 9700 m. The routes nationales and the routes dpartementales come under the category of la grande voirie and are under the supervision of the Ministry of Public Works. The urban and rural district roads, covering a much greater mileage and classed as la petite voirie, are maintained chiefly by the communes under the supervision of the Minister of the Interior.

Waterways.1The waterways of France, 7543 m. in length, of which canals cover 3031 m., are also classed under la grande voirie; they are the property of the state, and for the most part are free of tolls. They are divided into two classes. Those of the first class, which comprise rather less than half the entire system, have a minimum depth of 64 ft., with locks 126 ft. long and 17 ft. wide;- those of the second class are of smaller dimensions. Water traffic, which is chiefly in heavy merchandise, as coal, building materials, and agriculture and food produce, more than doubled in volume between 1881 and 1905. The canal and river system attains its greatest utility in the north, northeast and north-centre of the country; traffic is thickest along the Seine below Paris; along the rivers and small canals of the rich departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais and along the Oise and the canal of St Quentin whereby they communicate with Paris; along the canal from the Marne to the Rhine and the succession of waterways which unite it with the Oise; along the Canal de lEst (departments of Meuse and Ardennes); and along the waterways uniting Paris with the Sane at Chalon (Seine, Canal du Loing, Canal de Briare, Lateral canal of the Loire and Canal du Centre) and along the Sane between Chalon and Lyons.

In point of length the following are the principal canals:

Miles.

Est (uniting Meuse with Moselle and Saflne).. 270

From Nantes to Brest 225

Berry (uniting Montlucon with the canalized Cher and the Loire canal) 163

Midi (Toulouse to Mediterranean via Bziers); see CANAL 175

Burgundy (uniting the Yonne and Saflne) -. 151

Lateral canal of Loire 137

From Marne to Rhine (on French territory) 131

Lateral canal of Garonne 133

Rhfine to Rhine (on French territory). 119

Nivernais (uniting Loire and Yonne). ... III

Canal de Ia Somme 97

Centre (uniting Sane and Loire). ... 8I

Canal de lOurcq 67

Ardennes (uniting Aisne and Canal de lEst) -. 62

From Rhflne to Cette 77

Canal de Ia Haute Marne 60

St Quentin (uniting Scheldt with Sonsme and Cisc) 58

1 See the Guide officiel de la navigation in~rieure issued by the ministry of public works (Paris, 1903).

The chief navigable rivers are:

Total First Class nvigated Navigability.

Miles. Miles.

Seine 339 293

Aisne - 37 37

Marne - 114 114

Oise 99 ~5

Yonne.. - 67 53

Rhne. - 309 30

Sane - 234 234

Adour - 72 21

Garonne -. 289 96

Dordogne 167 26

Loire 452 35

Charente. - f 06 16

Vilaine -. 91 31

Escaut (in France) - 39 39

Scarpe - - 41 41

Lys 45 45

Aa 18 18

Railways.The first important line in France, from Paris to Rouen, was constructed through the instrumentality of Sir Edward Blount (1809-1905), an English banker in Paris, who was afterwards for thirty years chairman of the Ouest railway. After the rejection in 1838 of the governments proposals for the construction of seven trunk lines to be worked by the state, he obtained a concession for that piece of line on the terms that the French treasury would advance one-third of the capital at 3% if he would raise the remaining two-thirds, half in France and half in England. The contract for building the railway was put in the hands of Thomas Brassey; English navvies were largely employed on the work, and a number of English engine-drivers were employed when traffic was begun in 1843. A law passed In. 1842 laid the foundation of the plan under which the railways have since been developed, and mapped out nine main lines, running from Paris to the frontiers and from the Mediterranean to the Rhine and to the Atlantic coast. Under it the cost of the necessary land was to be found as to one-third by the state and as to the residue locally, but this arrangement proved unworkable and was abandoned in 1845, when it was settled that the state should provide the land and construct the earthworks and stations, the various companies which obtained concessions being left to make the permanent way, provide rolling stock and work the lines for certain periods. Construction proceeded under this law, but not with very satisfactory results, and new arrangements had to be made between 1852 and 1857, when the railways were concentrated in the hands of six great companies, the Nord, the Est, the Ouest, the Paris-Lyon-Mditerrane, the Orleans and the Midi. Each of these companies was allotted a definite sphere of influence, and was granted a concession for ninety-nine years from its date of formation, the concessions thus terminating at various dates between 1950 and 1960. In return for the privileges granted them the companies undertook the construction out of their own unaided resources of 1500 m. of subsidiary lines, but the railway expenditure of the country at this period was so large that in a few yearsthey found it impossible to raise the capital they required. In these circumstances the state agreed to guarantee the interest on the capital, the sums it paid in this way being regarded as advances to be reimbursed in the future with interest at 4%. This measure proved successful and the projected lines were completed. But demands for more lines were constantly arising, and the existing companies, in view of their financial position, were disinclined to undertake their construction. The government therefore found itself obliged to inaugurate a system of direct subventions, not only to the old large companies, but also to new small ones, to encourage the development of branch and local lines, and local authorities were also empowered to contribute a portion of the required capital. The result came to be that many small lines were begun by companies that had not the means to complete them, and again the state had to come to the rescue. In 1878 it agreed to spend 20,000,000 in purchasing and completing a number of these lines, some of which were handed over to the great companies, while others were retained in the hands of the government, forming the system known as the Chemins de Fer de lEtat. Next year a large programme of railway expansion was adopted, at an estimated cost to the state of 14o,000,000, and from 1880 to 1882 nearly 40,000,000 was expended and some 18cc m. of line constructed. Then there was a change in the financial situation, and it became difficult to find the money required. In these circumstances the conventions of 1883 were concluded, and the great companies partially relieved the government of its obligations by agreeing to contribute a certain proportion of the cost of the new lines and to provide the rolling stock for working them. In former cases when the railways had had recourse to state aid, it was the state whose contributions were fixed, while the railways were left to find the residue; but on this occasion the position was reversed. The state further guaranteed a minimum rate of interest on the capital invest~1, and this guarantee, which by the convention of 1859 had applied to new lines only, was now extended to cover both old and new lines, the receipts and expenditure from both kinds being lumped together. As before, the sums paid out in respect of guaranteed dividend were to be regarded as advances which were to be paid back to the state out of the profits made, when these permitted, and when the advances were wiped out, the profits, after payment of a certain dividend, were to be divided between the state and the railway, two-thirds going to the former and one-third to the latter. All the companies, except the Nord, have at one time or another had to take advantage of the guarantee, and the fact that the Ouest had been one of the most persistent and heavy borrowers in this respect was one of the reasons that induced the government to take it over as from the 1st of January 1909. By the 1859 conventions the state railway system obtained an entry into Paris by means of running powers over the Ouest from Chartres, and its position was further improved by the exchange of certain lines with the Orleans company.

The great railway systems of France are as follows:

I. The Nord, which serves the rich mining, industrial and farming districts of Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Aisne and Somme, connecting with the Belgian railways at several points. Its main lines run from Paris to Calais, via Creil, Amiens and Boulogne, from Paris to Lille, via Creil and Arras, and from Paris to Maubeuge via Creil, Tergnier and St Quentin.

2. The Ouest-Etat, a combination of the West and state systems. The former traversed Normandy in every directionand connected Paris with thetowns of Brittany. Its chief lines ran from Paris:to Le Havre via Mantes and Rouen, to Dieppe via Rouen, to Cherbourg, to Granyule and to Brest. The state railways served a large portion of western France, their chief lines being from Nantes via La Rochelle to Bordeaux, and from Bordeauxvia Saintes, Niort and Saumur to Chartres.

3. The Est, running from Paris via Chlons and Nancy to Avricourt (for Strassburg), via Troyes and Langres to Belfort and on via Basel to the Saint Gotthard, and via Reims and Mezires to Longwy.

4. The Orleans, running from Paris to Orleans, and thence serving Bordeaux via Tours, Poitiers and Angoulflme, Nantes via Tours and Angers, and Montauban and Toulouse via Vierzon and Limoges.

5. The Paris-Lyon-MditerranCe, connecting Paris with Marseilles via Moret, Laroche, Dijon, Macon and Lyons, and with NImes via Moret, Nevers and Clermont-Ferrand. It establishes communication hetwee1f France and Switzerland and Italy via Macon and Culoz (for the Mt. Cenis Tunnel) and via Dijon and Pontarlier (for the Simplon), and also has a direct line along the Mediterranean coast from Marseilles to Genoa via Toulon and Nice.

6. The Midi (Southern) has lines radiating from Toulouse to Bordeaux via Agen, to Bayonne via Tarbes and Pau, and to Cette via Carcassonne, Narbonne and Bziers. From Bordeaux there is also a direct line to Bayonne and Irun (for Madrid), and at the other end of the Pyrenees a line leads from Narbonne to Perpignan and Barcelona.

The following table, referring to lines of general interest, indicates the development of railways after 1885: ___________

Receipts in Expenses in Passengers Goods carried Year. Mileage. Thousands Thousands cix!ied (xooo Meiric of. of. (1000S). Tons).

1885 18,650 42,324 23,308 214,451 75,192

i89o 20,800 46,145 24,239 241,119 92,506

i895 22,650 50,542 27,363 348,852 IoO,834

1900 23,818 60,674 32,966 453,193 126,830

1904 24,755 60,589 31,477 433,913 130,144

Narrow gauge and normal gauge railways of local interest covered 3905 m. in 1904.

Commerce.

After entering on a rgime of free trade in 1860 France gradually reverted towards protection; this system triumphed in the Customs Law of 1892, which imposed more or less considerable duties on importsa law associated with the name of M. Mline. While raising the taxes both on agricultural products and manufactured goods, this law introduced, between France and all the powers trading with her, relations different from those in the past. It left the government free either to apply to foreign countries the general tariff or to enter into negotiations with them for the application, under certain conditions, of a minimum tariff. The policy of protection was further accentuated by raising the impost on corn from 5 to 7 francs per hectolitre (23/4 bushels). This system, however, which is opposed by a powerful party, I has at various times undergone modifications. On the one hand it became necessary, in face of an inadequate harvest, to suspend in 1898 the application of the law on the import of corn. On the other hand, in order to check the decline of exports and neutralize the harmful effects of a prolonged customs war, a commercial treaty was in 1896 concluded with Switzerland, carrying with it a reduction, in respect of certain articles, of the imposts which had been fixed by the law of 1892. An accord was likewise in 1898 effected with Italy, which since 1886 had been in a state of economic rupture with France, and in July 1899 an accord was concluded with the United States of America. Almost all other countries, moreover, share in the benefit of the minimum tariff, and profit by the modifications it may successively undergo.

Being in the main a self-supporting country France carries on most of her trade within her own borders, and ranks below _________ commerce, in Millions of Pounds Sterling.

General Special Imports. Exports. Total, imports. Exports. Total.

1876-1880 2IO~f I75~3 385.4 I7I~7 135.1 306.8

1881-1885 224.1 1778 401.9 183.4 135.3 318.7

1886-1890 208~2 f79.4 387.6 1688 I376 306.4

1891-1895 205.9 178.6 384~5 163.0 1338 296.8

1896-1900 237.8 2oI~o 438.8 171.9 150.8 322.7

1901-1905 2333 227.5 460.8 182-8 I747 3575

Great Britain, Germany and the United States in volume of exterior trade. The latter is subdivided into general commerce, which includes all goods entering or leaving the country, and special commerce whirls includes imports for home use and exports of home produce. The above table shows the developments of French trade during the years from 1876 to 1905 by means of quinquennial averages. A permanent body (the commission permanente des valeurs) fixes the average prices of the Imporis. Exports.

Value Per cent Value Per cent (Thousands of -r~t~t (Thousands of Total of J~), Value, of Q, Value.

Articles of Food 1886-1890 58,856 34.9 30,830 22.4

1891-1895 50,774 30.9 28,287 2I~I

I~96f900 42,488 24.9 27,838 18.6

1901-1905 33,631 18.4 28,716 16.5

Raw Materials i 1886-1890 85,778 50.8 33,848 24.6

1891-1895 88,211 54.3 32,557 24.4

1896-1900 101,727 59.2 40,060 266

1901-1905 116,580 63.8 47,385 27.1

Manufactu red Articles 2

1886-1890 24,125 I4~3 72,9I7 53.0

1891-1895 24,054 14.8 72,906 545

1896-1900 27,330 I5~9 82,270 54~8

1901-1905 32,554 17.8 98,582 56.4

I Includes horses, mules and asses.

2 Except certain manufactures which come under the category of articles of food.

articles in the customs list; this value is estimated at the end of the year in accordance with the variations that have taken place and is applied provisionally to the following year.

Amongst imports raw materials (wool, cotton and silk, coal, oilseeds, timber, &c.) hold the first place, articles of food (cereals, wine, coffee, &c.) and manufactured goods (especially machinery) ranking next. Amongst exports manufactured goods (silk, cotton and woollen goods, fancy wares, apparel, &c.) come before raw materials and articles of food (wine and dairy products bought chiefly by England).

Divided into these classes the imports and exports (special trade) for quinquennial periods from 1886 to 1905 averaged as shown in the preceding table.

The decline both in imports and in exports of articles of food, which is the most noteworthy fact exhibited in the preceding table, was due to the almost prohibitive tax in the Customs Law of 1892, upon agricultural products.

The average value of the principal articles of import and export (special trade) over quinquennial periods following 1890 is shown in the two tables below.

Principal Imports (Thousands of).

f89f1895.1896-1900.1901-1905.

Coal, coke, &c 7,018 9,883 10,539

Coffee 6,106 4,553 3,717

Cotton, raw -. - - 7,446 7,722 11,987

Flax 2,346 2,435 3,173

Fruitandseeds(oleaginous) 7,175 6,207 8,464

Hides and skins, raw - - 6,141 5,261 6,369

Machinery 2,181 3,632 4,614

Silk, raw 9,488 IO,39f 11,765

Timber 6,054 6,284 6,760

Wheat 10,352 5,276 1,995

Wine 9,972 10,454 5,167

Wool, raw 13,372 16,750 16,395

Principal Exports (Thousands of).

1891-1895. f896f900.1901-1905 .

Apparel 4,726 4,513 5,079

Brandy and other spirits 2,402 1,931 1,678

Butter 2,789 2,783 2,618

Cotton manufactures -.. 4,233 5,874 7,965

Haberdashery i~, - 5,830 6,039 6,599

Hides, raw 2,839 3,494 4,813

Hides, tanned or curried 4,037 4,321 4,753

Iron and steel, manufac tures of.. 2,849 4,201

Millinery 1,957 3,308 4,951

Motor cars and vehicles - - 160 2,147

Paper and manufactures of 2,095 2,145 2,551

Silk, raw, thrown, waste and cocoons - - - 4,738 4,807 6,090

Silk and waste silk, manu factures of.. -. 9,769 10,443 II,46~

Wine 8,824 9,050 9,139

Wool, raw 5,003 7,813 9,159

Wool, manufactures of 11,998 10,190 8,459

The following were the countries sending the largest quantities of goods (special trade) to France (during the same periods as in previous table). -

Trade with Principal Countries. Imports (Thousands of).

1891-1895.1896-1900.1901-1905.

Germany 13,178 13,904 17,363

Belgium 15,438 13,113 13,057

United Kingdom - - 20,697 22,132 22,725

Spain 10,294 10,560 6,5252

United States - 15,577 18,491 59,334

Argentine Republic .. 7,119 10,009 10,094

Other countries importing largely into France are Russia, Algeria and British India, whose imports in each case averagedover~9,ooo,ooo in value in the period 1901-1905; China (average value 7,000,000); and Italy (average value 6,ooo,000).

The following are the principal countries receiving the exports of France (special trade), with values for the same periods.

i Includes small fancy wares, toys, also wooden wares and furniture, brushes, &c.

Decrease largely due to Spanish-American War (1898), (1898),

Trade with Principal Countries. Exports (Thousands of).

1891f 895 1896-1900 -1901-1905

Germany 13,712 16,285 21,021

Belgium 19,857, 22,135 24,542

United Kingdom - - - 39,310 45,203 49,156

United States - - 9,337 9,497 50,411

Algeria 7,872 9,434 11,652

The other chief customers of France were Switzerland and Italy, whose imports from France averaged in 1901-1905 nearly 10,000,000 and over 7,200,000 respectively in value. In the same period Spain received exports from France averaging 4,700,000.

The trade of France was divided between foreign countries and her colonies in the following proportions (imports and exports combined). ____________________ ____________________

General Trade., Special Trade.

Foreign c I Foreign C 1

Countries. o omes. Countries. o onies.

1891-1895 92.00 800 90.89 9.11

1896-1900 9I~f8 8~82 8,9.86 Io~I4

1901-1905 90.41 9,59 88.78 ff22

The respective shares of the leading customs in the tfade of the country is approximately shown in the following table, which gives the value of their exports and imports (general trade) in 1905 in millions sterling.

Marseilles. .. 88.8 Boulogne -. 17.5

Le Havre.. 79.5 Calais 14.1

Paris 42~8 Dieppe. .. 3.5

Dunkirk -.. 34~8 Rouen 11.3

Bordeaux -.. 27.4 Belfort-Petit-Croix 10.7

In the same year the other chief customs in order of importance were Tourcoing, Jetimont, Cette, St Nazaire and Avricourt.

The chief local bodies concerned with commerce and industry are the chambres de commerce and the chambres consultatives darts et manufactures, the members of which are elected from their own number by the traders and industrialists of a certain standing. They are established in the chief towns, and their principal function is to advi.~e the government on measures for improving and facilitating commerce and industry within their circumscription. See also BANKS AND BANKING; SAVINGS BANKS; POST AND POSTAL SERVICE.

Shipping.The following table thhows the increase in tonnage of sailing and steam shipping engaged in foreign trade entered and cleared at the ports of France over quinquennial periods from 1890.

Entered. Cleared.

French. Foreign. French. Foreign.

1891-1895 4,277,967 9,947,893 4,521,928 IO,091,000

1896I900 4,665,268 12,037,571 5,005,563 12,103,358

1901-1905 4,782,101 14,744,626 5,503,463 14,823,217

The increase of the French mercantile marine (which is fifth in importance in the world) over the same period is traced in the following table. Vessels of 2 net tons and upwards are enumerated.

Sailing. Steam. Total.

Number Number Number of Tonnage. of Tonnage. of Tnnage.

I Vessels. Vessels. Vessels.

1 1891-1895 14,183 402,982 1182 502,363 15,365 905,345

1896-1900 14,327 437,468 1231 504,674 15,558 942,142

~~,~oI_I905 14,867642,562 1388 617,536 16,255 I,260~o98

At the beginning of 1908 the total was 17,193 (tonnage, 1,402,647); of these 13,601 (tonnage, 81,833) were vessels of less than 20 tons, while 502 (tonnage, 1,014,506) were over 800 tons.

The increase in the tonnage of sailing vessels, which in other countries tends to decline, was due to the bounties voted by parliament to its merchant sailing fleet with the view of increasing the number